Jonah is in his psychology class and has just gotten his third exam score back. It's an "F" again! He has not passed one single exam this semester. He decides to quit studying for the class since it has not seemed to help much. Jonah is exhibiting ____.

A) reactance
B) temporal discounting
C) the certainty effect
D) learned helplessness

Temporal Discounting

The tendency to devalue rewards and consequences that happen in the future in favor of immediate gratifications.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed.

Certainty Effect

The tendency of people to overweight outcomes that are certain relative to outcomes which are only probable.